What is NOx and SOx ?

Air Pollutants

In general, air pollutants are divided into two main groups: gases and particulate matters. The gases include Carbon Monoxide, nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), and Hydrocarbon. On the other hand, the particulate matters include dust, smoke, smog, and soot. The National Air Pollutants Emission data provides the emission data of air pollutants such as SOx, NOx, Carbon Monoxide, TSP and Volatile Organic Compounds that cause harm to human and the environment.

Air Pollutants Emission data

As the most basic data needed to establish the national environmental policy in securing clean air, air pollutants emission data provides the data on types, sources and the amounts of air pollutants. With this regard, In regard to this, the National Institute of Environmental Research is in charge of estimating the national air pollutants emission each year and managing the data as the nation's official statistics.

Sulfur oxides (SOx)

Sulfur compounds, which are prevalent in fuels, combine with oxygen when fuels are burned, and produce SOx gases in the atmosphere. When sulfur is oxidized, it forms sulfur dioxide or SO2. If it is more oxidized, it becomes SO3. These SO2 and SO3 are in the family of SOx. SO2 is easily oxidized in the atmosphere to SO3 and becomes sulfate, or reacts with water vapor to form micrometer-size droplets of sulfuric acid, H2SO4. SOx is a pungent, colorless gase that causes respiratory illness if concentrations reach a certain level. Even at the low level, however, it can be toxic enough to kill plants.

SOx, along with NOx, is mostly formed in the combustion of fuels containing sulfur such as coal and oil. SOx is responsible for the formation of acid rain, corrosion of metal structures and is harmful to people and other living organisms. Acid rain causes limited damage to any cities or industrial complexes, but the damage can spread across wide geographic areas if a large amount of acid rain is released. Acidification of lakes, surface waters, groundwater can do damage to aquatic creatures, forests and farming lands.

SOx reduction measures are divided into the precautionary measures and the post measure. The precautionary measures include the use of low sulfur fuels (low sulfur oil and coal) or clean fuels (natural gas and LPG) and the desulfurization of oil products. On the other hand, the post measure refers to exhaust gas desulfurization, a process to remove SOx gases from flue gas generated from combustion of oil and coal before releasing the gas from smokestacks. Exhaust gas desulfurization, however, has limitations in that this method can only apply to large-scale facilities due to the economic viability.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx)

NOx gases are emitted from high temperature combustion. Although most of the NOx gases are generated from the combustion of nitrogen present in the air, some are produced from the oxidation of nitrogen contained in fuels. Nitrogen generates various nitrogen oxides including nitrogen monoxide or NO, nitrogen dioxide or NO2, and Dinitrogen trioxide or N2O3. NO and NO2 are the most prominent nitrogen oxides and are often referred to as NOx. NO is easily oxidized to NO2, which is then dissolved in water to make HNO3. Like sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides are the sources of acid rain.

NOx is harmful to human health. In direct way, it causes or worsens respiratory disease, and can do damage to plants, whereas it plays a significant role in photochemical reaction. N2O, or Nitrous Oxide, also known as laughing gas, is used as anesthetic, and is one of the air pollutants that cause global warming.

Volatile Organic Compound (VOC)

VOC means petrochemical products, organic solvent and other substances among hydrocarbons, and are notified by minister of environment in consultation with directors of relative executive agencies. VOC's steam pressure is over 0.02psi and its boiling point is under 100℃.

VOC is produced by organic combination of carbon and hydrogen and exists in diverse types. It is also generated by using oil product and incompletely incinerating oil, alcohol, and other organic acid. VOC includes Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons(PAHs) such as aldehyde, ketones, benzene, and benzopyrene, some of which is a carcinogen. In addition, many of VOC has a strong smell.

Photochemical reaction can be generated by mix of VOC and nitrogen oxides in the sunlight, causing pollutants including peroxyacetylnitrate. These pollutants can lead to visibility obstruction, eye disease, and respiratory disease, and damage to plants.

DUST

Dust means particles which are floating or scattering in the air. According to chemical composition and size of particles, dust has different influences on human health. The smaller a particle is, the worse effect it has on a lung. In addition, minute particles provide wide adhesion area, playing a role of vehicles for heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, and endocrine disruptor. In general, diameter of particles in the air is from 0.001 to 500㎛ and particles of 0.1 to 10㎛ accounts for the largest portion. 1㎛ is 1/1000㎜ or 10000Å.

The density of dust in the air can be shown by the following units: TSP, PM10, and PM2.5. Total Suspended Particulate(TSP) means the total amount of dust scattering in the air, and PM10 indicates the amount of dust whose diameter is under 10㎛. Also, PM2.5 means the amount of dust whose diameter is under 2.5㎛.

CO

CO is produced by incomplete incineration of carbon. CO, which is colorless and odorless, can cause toxication and can be fatal only by a small quantity. When a man inhale CO, it joins with Hb in blood instead of O2, producing CO-Hb. Because CO is 200times powerful to combine with Hb than O2 it reduces the capability of conveying O2 by Hb. Main causes are heating and auto exhaust.

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Hydraulic Fluid Cross Reference Chart

The following chart may be used to cross over some of the more common brands of hydraulic fluid. 

HFI	Conoco	Mobil	Shell	Chevron	Exxon	Texaco
Hydraulic-150	Super Hydraulic MV 32 SAE5W20	Hydrailic Oil 13 DTE 12M DTE 13M DTE23	Tellus T 32	AW Hydraulic HD 32	Humble Hydraulic 1193 Univis J-26 Univis N 32	Rando HDZ 32
Hydraulic-150	Super Hydraulic 32 SAE10W ISO 32	Hydrailic AW32 Hydraulic Oil Light DTE 24 ETNA 24	AW Hydraulic 32 Tellus 25 Tellus 32 Tellus 927 Tellus Plus 22	AW Hydraulic Oil 32 AW Machine Oil 32 Rykon Oil AW 32 Rykon Oil 32	Humble Hydraulic 1193 Humble Hydraulic H32 Humble Hydraulic H34 Nuto H44	Rando HD 32
Hydraulic-150	Ecoterra 32 SAE10, ISO 32	DTE Excel 32	Tellus S 32	Clarity Hydraulic AW 32	Terrastic EP 32	Rando HD Ashless
Hydraulic-200	Super Hydraulic 46 SAE10W ISO46	DTE 25 ETNA 25 Hydraulic Oil AW 46 Hydraulic Oil Medium Hydrex AW 46 NS 46 Vacrex 46	AW Hydraulic 46 MD Hydraulic Oil AW 46 Tellus 29 Tellus 46 Tellus 929 Tellus Plus 46	AW Hydraulic Oil 46 AW Machine Oil 46 EP Industrial Oil 46 EP Machine Oil 11 Hydraulic Oil 46 Rykon Oil AW 46	Humble Hydraulic 1194 Humble Hydraulic H46 Humble Hydraulic M46 Nuto H46 Nuto H48	Rando HD 46
Hydraulic-300	Super Hydraulic 68 SAE20W ISO68	Hydraulic Oil 68 Hydraulic Oil Heavy DTE 26 ETNA 26	AW Hydraulic 68 Tellus 33 Tellus 68 Tellus 933 Tellus Plus 68	AW Hydraulic Oil 68 AW Machine Oil 68 EP Machine Oil 68 EP Machine Oil 70	Humble Hydraulic 1197 Humble Hydraulic H68 Nuto H54 Nuto H68	Rando HD 68

The following chart may be used to help determine the proper ISO grade hydraulic fluid to use with your system by referencing the manufacturer and model pump used in your equipment or fluid powered system. In the chart below, the ISO grade (32, 46, 68) fluid to be used should fall within the range of the optimum cSt listed in the right-hand column. 

Manufacturer	Equipment	Min cSt	Max cSt	Optimum cSt
Bosch	FA;RA;K.	15	216	26 - 45
Bosch	Q;Q-6;SV-10, 15, 20, 25, VPV 16, 25, 32.	21	216	32 - 54
Bosch	SV-40; 80 &100 VPV 45, 63.	32	216	43 - 64
Bosch	Radial Piston (SECO)	10	65	21 - 54
Bosch	Axial & RKP Piston	14	450	32 - 65
Commercial Intertech	Roller and Sleeve Bearing Gear Pumps.	10	-	20
Danfoss	All	10	-	21 - 39
Denison	Piston Pumps	13	-	24 - 31
Denison	Vane Pumps	10	107	30
Dynex/Rivett axial piston pumps	PF4200 Series	1.5	372	20 - 70
Dynex/Rivett axial piston pumps	PF2006/8, PF/PV4000, and PF/PV6000 series.	2.3	413	20 - 70
Dynex/Rivett axial piston pumps	PF 1000,PF2000 and PF3000 series.	3.5	342	20 - 70
Eaton	Heavy Duty Piston Pumps and Motors, Medium Duty Piston Pumps and Motors Charged Systems, Light Duty Pumps.	6	-	10 - 39
Eaton	Medium Duty Piston Pumps and Motors - Non-charged Systems.	6	-	10 - 39
Eaton	Gear Pumps, Motors and Cylinders.	6	-	10 - 43
Eaton - Vickers	Mobile Piston Pumps	10	200	16 - 40
Eaton - Vickers	Industrial Piston Pumps	13	54	16 - 40
Eaton - Vickers	Mobile Vane Pumps	9	54	16 - 40
Eaton - Vickers	Industrial Vane Pumps	13	54	16 - 40
Eaton - Char-Lynn	J, R, and S Series Motors and Disc Valve Motors	13	-	20 - 43
Eaton - Char-Lynn	A Series and H Series Motors	20	-	20 - 43
Haldex Barnes	W Series Gear Pumps	11	-	21
Kawasaki P-969-0026	Staffa Radial Piston Motors	25	150	50
Kawasaki P-969-0190	K3V/G Axial Piston Pumps	10	200	-
Linde	All	10	80	15 - 30
Mannesmann Rexroth	V3 , V4, V5, V7 Pumps	25	-	25 - 160
Mannesmann Rexroth	V2 Pumps	16	160	25 - 160
Mannesmann Rexroth	G2, G3,G4 pumps & motors; G8, G9, G10 pumps	10	300	25 - 160
Parker Hannifin	Gerotor Motors	8	-	12 - 60
Parker Hannifin	Gear Pumps PGH Series. Gear Pumps D/H/M Series	-	-	17 - 180
Parker Hannifin	Hydraulic Steering	8	-	12 - 60
Parker Hannifin	PFVH / PFVI vane pumps	-	-	17 - 180
Parker Hannifin	Series T1	10	-	10 - 400
Parker Hannifin	VCR2 Series	13	-	-
Parker Hannifin	Low Speed High Torque Motors	10	-	-
Parker Hannifin	Variable Vol Piston Pumps. PVP & PVAC	-	-	17 - 180
Parker Hannifin	Axial Fixed Piston Pumps	-	-	12 - 100
Parker Hannifin	Variable Vol Vane - PVV	-	-	16 - 110
Poclain Hydraulics	H and S series motors	9	-	20 - 100
Sauer-Sundstrand USA	All	6.4	-	13
Sauer-Sundstrand GmbH	Series 10 and 20, RMF(hydrostatic motor)	7	-	12 - 60
Sauer-Sundstrand GmbH	Series 15 open circuit	12	-	12 - 60
Sauer-Sundstrand GmbH	Series 40, 42, 51 & 90 CW S-8 hydrostatic motor	7	-	12 - 60
Sauer-Sundstrand GmbH	Series 45	9	-	12 - 60
Sauer-Sundstrand GmbH	Series 60, LPM(hydrostatic motor)	9	-	12 - 60
Sauer-Sundstrand GmbH	Gear Pumps + Motors	10	-	12 - 60

Diesel Generator Captive Power Plants

Diesel engine power plants are most frequently used in small power (captive non-utility) systems. The main reason for their extensive use is the higher efficiency of the diesel engines compared with gas turbines and small steam turbines in the output range considered. In applications requiring low captive power, without much requirement of process steam, the ideal method of power generation would be by installing diesel generator plants. The fuels burnt in diesel engines range from light distillates to residual fuel oils. Most frequently used diesel engine sizes are between the range 4 to 15 MW. For continuous operation, low speed diesel engine is more cost-effective than high speed diesel engine.

Advantages of adopting Diesel Power Plantsare:

■ Low installation cost

■ Short delivery periods and installation period

■ Higher efficiency (as high as 43 – 45 %)

■ More efficient plant performance under part loads

■ Suitable for different type of fuels such as low sulphur heavy stock and heavy fuel oil in case of large capacities.

■ Minimum cooling water requirements,

■ Adopted with air cooled heat exchanger in areas where water is not available

■ Short start up time

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Diesel Generating system

Diesel engine is the prime mover, which drives an alternator to produce electrical energy. In

the diesel engine, air is drawn into the cylinder and is compressed to a high ratio (14:1 to 25:1). During this compression, the air is heated to a temperature of 700–900°C. A metered quantity of diesel fuel is then injected into the cylinder, which ignites spontaneously because of the high temperature. Hence, the diesel engine is also known as compression ignition (CI) engine.

DG set can be classified according to cycle type as: two stroke and four stroke. However, the bulk of IC engines use the four stroke cycle. Let us look at the principle of operation of the

four-stroke diesel engine.

Four Stroke - Diesel Engine

The 4 stroke operations in a diesel engine are: induction stroke, compression stroke, ignition

and power stroke and exhaust stroke.

1st : Induction stroke - while the inlet valve is open, the descending piston draws in

fresh air.

2nd : Compression stroke - while the valves are closed, the air is compressed to a pressure of

up to 25 bar.

3rd : Ignition and power stroke - fuel is injected, while the valves are closed (fuel injection

actually starts at the end of the previous stroke), the fuel ignites spontaneously and

the piston is forced downwards by the combustion gases.

4th : Exhaust stroke - the exhaust valve is open and the rising piston discharges the spent

gases from the cylinder. Detail Click

Fig: Schematic Diagram of Four-Stroke Diesel Engine

                                                          Fig:  DG Set System

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HFO Power Plant Efficiency Calculation

Heat Rate (Energy Efficiency)

Overall thermal performance or energy efficiency for a power plant for a period can be defined as

φhr = H / E         (1)

where

φhr = heat rate (Btu/kWh, kJ/kWh)

H = heat supplied to the power plant for a period (Btu, kJ)

E = energy output from the power plant in the period (kWh)

Thermal Efficiency

Thermal efficiency of a power plant can be expressed as

μte = (100) (3412.75) / φ          (2)

where

μte = thermal efficiency (%)

Capacity Factor

The capacity factor for a power plant is the ratio between average load and rated load for a period of time and can be expressed as

μcf = (100) Pal / Prl               (3)

where

μcf = capacity factor (%)

Pal = average load for the power plant for a period (kW) Prl = rated capacity for the power plant (kW)

Load Factor

Load factor for a power plant is the ratio between average load and peak load and can be expressed as

μlf = (100) Pal / Ppl                (4)

where

μlf = load factor (%)

Ppl = peak load for the power plant in the period (kW)

Economic Efficiency

Economic efficiency is the ratio between production costs, including fuel, labor, materials and services, and energy output from the power plant for a period of time. Economic efficiency can be expressed as

φee = C / E         (5)

where

φee = economic efficiency (cents/kW, euro/kW, ...) C = production costs for a period (cents, euro, ..)

E = energy output from the power plant in the period (kWh)

Operational Efficiency

Operational efficiency is the ratio of the total electricity produced by the plant during a period of time compared to the total potential electricity that could have been produced if the plant operated at 100 percent in the period.

Operational efficiency can be expressed as

μoe = (100) E / E100%               (6)

where

μeo = operational efficiency (%)

E = energy output from the power plant in the period (kWh)

E100% = potential energy output from the power plant operated at 100% in the period (kWh)

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